December 2017 theme is dedicated to figuring out what really matter to you
Glow from within
Shine your light brightly
See more out of your window
Gasset quote: Tell me to what you pay attention and I will tell you who you are.
Thoreau quote: There is no value in life except what you choose to place upon it and no happiness in any place except what you bring to it yourself.
Campbell quote: We’re so engaged in doing things to achieve purposes of out value that we forget the inner value, the rapture that is associated with being alive, is what it is all about.
Condorcet quote: Enjoy your own life without comparing it with that of another.
Darwin quote: A man who dares to waste one hour of time has not discovered to value of life.
What do you think of when you hear the word enlightenment? The word has become synonymous with some sort of inner renewal or discovery about yourself. You might think of Buddha, or people like MLK or Ghandi. Maybe you think of a select group of people, that are somehow mentally superior to everyone else, or a wise old man meditating on the top of a mountain.
Many people know that the Enlightenment was a period of European history, and knowledge of it usually stops there. This article will give an outline of the Age of Enlightenment and it’s most important people, events, and effects on the course of history.
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in western Europe in the late 1600s and throughout the 1700s. It was defined by scientific advances and new ideas in philosophy. The ways that the Enlightenment affected Europe were vast, but it was all based on a simple idea; the emphasis of human reason. This means that people should think about everything in a logical way. If it wasn’t practical or didn’t make sense, it was useless and should be abolished. Not everyone during this time looked at the Enlightenment exactly the same way. The idea of the Enlightenment manifested itself in science, government, economics, social structures, and religion.
Because the movement was based on an idea that was fundamentally simple, it can be hard to believe that it happened as late as it did. In reality, writings suggest some have thought this way since ancient Greece. The “Age of Enlightenment” happened when it did because it was the first time that these ideas actually began to change the landscape of European life. This is due to many contributing factors, but mainly the invention of the printing press. Once the means to produce writings on an industrialized scale became widespread, the ideas of one person could easily be read on the other side of a continent. Censorship became much more difficult because of this, so new ideas about government could also be shared. Because the printing press allowed for the spread of ideas, an ideological movement like the Enlightenment could occur.
The Scientific Revolution was a movement based on the same principles of the Enlightenment. It occurred immediately before and during the Enlightenment, and was also due to printing press technology. The Scientific Revolution, as the name suggests, focused more on science and math than the Enlightenment, which focused on more philosophical matters. Because of the small differences, the Scientific Revolution is often thought of as part of the Enlightenment. The focus of this article will be more on the later part of the Enlightenment, but the Scientific Revolution was so impactful it is worth a mention. Scientists such as Isaac Newton, Francis Bacon, Rene Descartes, Johannes Kepler, Galileo, and Copernicus all made their appearances in this period, changing physics, mathematics, and the scientific method forever.
A scientific approach to thought could apply to more than actual science, and this is what the Enlightenment became defined by. Some of the first writers to be considered members of the Enlightenment were the Englishmen Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. Their ideas on government and the rights of the people have had deep impacts on the political landscape of the western world. In his book Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes argued that humans are naturally selfish and evil. If they were not constrained by some sort of system, society would go into disarray and chaos. He wrote in favor of a strong leader to a nation, who had power over the people to prevent them from destroying themselves. Locke had a quite different idea. He argued that all people are born with certain “natural rights”, which were the rights to life, liberty, and property. The purpose of government according to Locke was to protect each individual’s three natural rights. If the government takes any of these rights forcefully, Locke claims that they are not a true government, and the people have the right to overthrow it and form a new one. The ideas of Locke were very influential on the American Declaration of Independence and Constitution. The right to property was replaced with the pursuit of happiness by the founding fathers because they feared the people would demand free land as an unalienable right. By property, Locke did not necessarily mean land, but the possessions that an individual accumulated over their life.
In France, the new group of activist intellectuals called philosophes (not philosophers), also published their ideas on government. Montesquieu believed in the balance of powers in government. If the government ever decided to take an individual’s rights like Locke feared, the government might be too powerful for anybody to stop them. If instead there were separate branches in government that equally shared power over one another, the violation of citizen’s rights could be prevented.
Francois-Marie Arouet, better known as Voltaire, was among the most influential writers of the Enlightenment. He was relentless in his criticism of the hypocrisies of the Catholic church and the aristocracy. He rallied against corruption, war, intolerance, and fanaticism. In his widely read publications, he urged Europeans to defeat ignorance and think for themselves. Despite his advocation for individualism, Voltaire believed that an effective government must be lead by a powerful yet “enlightened” ruler. He was close friends with Frederick II of Prussia, who was among the “enlightened despots” of the day.
While it is arguable among historians what really defines an enlightened despot, the basic requirements are that a king or queen uses absolute power over their nation in order to enforce reforms that generally help the people along the lines of the Enlightenment. It is disputed which people in history were enlightened despots, but the case is the strongest for Maria Theresa of Austria, her son Joseph II of Austria, Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia, and Catherine the Great of Russia. All of these four ruled during or shortly after the Enlightenment. What is generally common between these monarchs is that they funded education, increased economic efficiency, and (usually) tried to make life better for the poor. Nobody is perfect though. Frederick II started a war that spread across all of Europe, Catherine the Great put a bloody end to a peasant rebellion, and most of Joseph II’s reforms were repealed by his brother after he died. Regardless, the enlightened despots were important because they showed that the ideas of the Enlightenment could actually be put into action, and become more than just ideas. It is this that makes the Enlightenment more impactful than just a bunch of books and letters.
Though the aristocracy in Europe remained strong after the Enlightenment, criticisms of it in the Age of Reason would lead to events that would forever change history. The aristocracy was the class of very wealthy families that were usually entitled by blood to large swaths of land, government positions, tax exemptions, and huge inheritances. Basically, they were rich by default. They did not need to achieve much to live in luxury. This was quite understandably upsetting to many of the philosophes of the Enlightenment. It was possible, though difficult, for a person of low birth to work hard and achieve great wealth, but even then they would never have the landed estates and special treatments of a noble. As mentioned before, Voltaire was one of the greatest opponents to the aristocracy. He pointed out to his readers that the richest noble was just the same as the poorest commoner. The philosophes were usually against things of tradition, because the idea of continuing something just because it’s old does not appeal much to reason. Aristocrats were almost the embodiment of tradition, and therefore were called unenlightened. Because of this, aristocrats saw the Enlightenment as a threat to their way of life, and rightly so (hint: French Revolution).
The nature of how money changed hands was vastly changed in the Enlightenment not only due to changing views on an old system, but also the birth of a new system. Of the several Enlightenment thinkers to come out of Scotland, probably the most famous went by the name of Adam Smith. In his book, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, he explored the idea that economic self-interest would actually play in favor of everyone in an economic community. His ideas would eventually adopt the name capitalism, unarguably one of the most world-changing ideas in modern history. Capitalism had an enemy in Adam Smith’s day, but it wasn’t the classic Cold War rival of communism, it was a much older system known as mercantilism. In mercantilism, the government enforces strong regulations in effort to keep more trade flowing into the country than out of the country. The theory was that this would make the country more prosperous, but import regulations would sometimes do more damage than good. The introduction of capitalism spelled the end of mercantilism in Europe.
The Enlightenment seriously questioned anything of tradition. It was strongly against superstition and fanaticism of any sort. To the philosophes, the Catholic church became a natural target. They believed it preached the nonsensical and caused ignorance on a massive scale. Despite this, many prominent philosophes were not atheists. Many of them believed in a new “religion” born out of the Enlightenment called deism. Deism is the belief that God created the universe so that it can function on its own. After creation, God stopped interfering with the universe, and hasn’t since. This was followed by many Enlightenment figures because thanks to the Scientific Revolution, they learned that the universe is extremely complex, with countless factors and laws. But since everything seems to obey these laws, the universe must be self-functioning. Of course, not all philosophes believed in deism or atheism, but they’re worth a mention when talking about the Enlightenment.
There is no end to a way of thinking, and many hold Enlightenment views today, but the Age of Reason itself is often thought of as ending around the French Revolution. The French Revolution (which started in 1789) was a very complex event and could have its own article, but for the sake of brevity, the French Revolution was the overthrowing of the French king and the French aristocracy. The middle and lower classes took control of the country. What started as the culmination of Enlightenment ideas and the glorious liberation of the French people morphed into a bloody power struggle and one of the darkest periods of French history. The strong nationalism that arose in Europe during the Napoleonic Wars right after the French Revolution was a strong sign that the Age of Enlightenment had ended. In its place came the Romantic movement, which the next article of the month will be about. The effects that the Enlightenment and the Romantic movement have had on today’s world will also be covered in the next article. Thank you for reading, and I hope this has been an interesting and informational article. If you are interested in learning more about the Enlightenment, you can look at some of the sources that I used for this article below.
Author: The content of this article was conceived of and created by Paul Schneider-Krumpus for The Thinking Muse.
“Age of Enlightenment.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 5 Aug. 2016.
Campbell, Heather M. The Emergence of Modern Europe: C. 1500 to 1788. New York: Britannica Educational Pub., in Association with Rosen Educational Services, 2011. Print.
“Internet History Sourcebooks.” Internet History Sourcebooks. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Aug. 2016 <http://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook10.asp>.
Palmer, R. R., Joel Colton, and Lloyd S. Kramer. A History of Europe in the Modern World. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print.
Large parties! Group projects! Audience participation!
If these thoughts make you cringe and want to run for the hills, then you may be an introvert.
The last few years there has been a revolution going on. If you were unaware, it is likely because it is an introvert revolution. They revolt quietly. *wink* Read more to find out what it is all about.
Many feel that our current society has made introverts feel like we are not quite normal or doing-it-wrong. American culture is highly stimulating and aggressive. All the noise can easily overshadow introverts. But perceptions of introverts can and do vary widely by culture.
With the new introvert consciousness, people are stepping up and proudly proclaiming their introversion. Many are tired of feeling ashamed or put down for being who they are naturally. Oddly enough, recent research shows that introverts may account for approximately half of all people. Half! I guess there is no accounting for feeling like the odd man out.
It is time to for the quiet voices to be heard.
Frankly, I never really gave it much thought. I always knew there were different types of people. I had heard of peers getting jobs that required them to take a Myers-Briggs test for best placement. All I knew was that it was a personality test. It sounded interesting, but that was all the exposure I had.
I just always knew I was one of the nerdy, thinking types. I didn’t really think to slap a label on it, besides possibly nerd. (Terminology of nerd versus geek is another discussion for a different day, so for the time I will use nerd.)
My quietness has also been misinterpreted as snobbiness. This is no doubt also attributed to my bitchy resting face, but what is a girl to do? It’s my face. I can’t change it. I have just accepted that I am slightly different and that is okay.
A few years back, someone mentioned I should read the book Quiet, by Susan Cain. I did. It was quite enlightening. I now stand alongside the many who are proud to claim their introversion.
So what does it really mean to be an introvert?
Defining what an introvert is has evolved over the years. Here is a quick and dirty review for you. Each theory has arguments for and against why they are viable. I am not judging, I am merely presenting information. I have used many resources extensively through this entire article. For reference, please see the full citations at the end of this article under Resources.
Carl G. Jung, a psychiatrist, founded analytical psychology. He saw introversion and extroversion as opposite attitude types that we grow into naturally. The introvert attitude compels one to reflect and focus on their mental life.
The next formative step in understanding was developed by Isabel Briggs Myers and Katharine C. Briggs. They developed the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. This personality inventory identifies your preferences to enable you to learn about yourself. One of the preferences refers to introversion or extroversion.
The results of the inventory are broken down into 4-letter descriptor. Each letter symbolizes a preference. I briefly list them here in a simplified version. Continue your own research if you are interested in finding out where you fall. They are:
Personally, I am an INTJ or introvert, intuitive, thinking, and judging. Each classification is based on how you answer the questions. Your answers will place you on the spectrum for each preference.
The Big Five is another personality indicator that identifies introversion. The Big Five measures personality traits of:
Extroversion is defined by energy, assertiveness, and sociability among other things. Introverts simply have less of the extrovert qualities.
In the past, introverted personality has even been listed in the international classification of disease. It was classified as a variant of schizoid personality disorder.
Many take issue with these definitions as introversion is looked at as some sort of deficiency or lack of something (extroversion). They don’t feel they are lacking anything, just different. Introversion is not a disease, condition, or deficiency. It is a natural and normal temperament.
Recently, introversion has become kind of a hot topic. There are many resources owning and disowning various qualities of introversion. But because people are complex, introversion will look different everyone. That is just the nature of the beast.
It seems that the one thread most discussions boil down to is energy. Mental energy, but could also involve physical, emotional, and spiritual energy. Mental energy is a difficult thing to measure, but it is very easy to feel. What makes you feel invigorated and what makes you feel depleted?
Introverts get energy from mindful activities. They get inspired by ideas and concepts. Our still waters run deep. Then in turn, introverts spend that energy on social and highly engaged activities.
We are in danger of being misunderstood as unsociable, self-centered, shy, or lonely. While this may be true in some instances, *smirk*, it is unfair to paint introverts with such a broad brush. We do socialize, just in a different preferably more intimate way. Our ability to reflect can make us more in tune with others and how they feel. Shyness is an attribute that is independent of introversion. Lastly, being alone does not equate to being lonely.
We are all just a unique stew of personality and experience. Being an introvert is just one of the many aspects that we may include.
It all about you and your happiness!
The best-adjusted 
people are “psychologically patriotic” meaning they are proud to be what they are. For introverts, that means understanding what introversion is and how to manage our energy in a high-octane world. Defining what we want our lives to look like, so we can fulfill our personal purpose.
The field of positive psychology focuses on strengths and virtues that enable people to thrive. It is a very exciting field to me and I will write more on it in future articles. Regardless, it focuses on what is good and what made it that way instead of what is wrong and why. It is much more empowering.
I especially love the concept of flow presented by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. It is an optimal state of clarity and transcendence. As many states of flow are solitary or mental pursuits, introverts are especially likely to attain this state. Truly inspiring!
I have read a few introvert books and I wanted to share my favorites with you. Keep in mind, I am not a book critic. Use this guide as you see fit to determine which books you may be interested in checking out yourself. Pick a different book for each mood.
Many of these books cover similar topics but just in a different manner and tone. Topics usually include:
There you have it. I hope I have provided some food for thought. Are you an introvert? Is someone you love an introvert? Take the poll or let me know in the comments.
Cain, Susan. Quiet : the power of introverts in a world that can’t stop talking. 1st pbk. ed. New York : Broadway Paperbacks, 2013.
Dembling, Sophia. The introvert’s way : living a quiet life in a noisy world. 1st ed. New York : Penguin Group, 2012.
Helgoe, Laurie A. Introvert power : why your inner life is your hidden strength. 2nd ed. Naperville, Ill. : Sourcebooks, 2013.
Kozak, Arnold. The everything guide to introvert edge : maximize the advantages of being an introvert–at home and at work. Avon, Massachusetts : Adams Media, 2013.
Laney, Marti Olsen. The introvert advantage : how to thrive in an extrovert world. New York : Workman Pub., 2002.
Myers, Isabel Briggs, and Peter B. Myers. Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type. Palo Alto, Calif.: Davies-Black Pub., 1995.
